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An Alabama Literacy Test Keeps Black Voters Off the Rolls
Prior to the passage of the Voting Rights Act in 1965, many southern (and some western) states had devised "literacy tests" and other voting requirements whose primary purpose was to deny African Americans the vote. The tests consisted of written [...]
Birmingham, Alabama Issues Racial Segregation Ordinances
This selection of city ordinances from Birmingham, Alabama, highlights the often absurd lengths to which local leaders in the Deep South were willing to go in order to maintain the strict separation of races. These "Jim Crow" laws, passed by [...]
"The Black Child's Pledge"
The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense (as it was originally called) was founded in Oakland by Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton. The group's focus on "armed defense" often overshadowed their community activities, which included a free-breakfast [...]
Malcolm X Describes the Extent of America's "Racist System"
Malcolm X delivered this speech, titled "Prospects for Freedom in 1965," to an Organization for Afro American Unity (OAAU) rally at the Militant Labor Forum in New York City on January 7, 1965. A month later he was assassinated. Inspired by the [...]
A Southern Activist Warns Black Chicagoans about the Daley Machine
The Democratic Party political machine notoriously ruled Chicago, distributing jobs and city services in exchange for political support. James Bevel, the director of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference's direct action campaigns, was a [...]
Background Essay on Mahalia Jackson
Mahalia Jackson is an American gospel singer famous for her involvement in the civil rights movement. This short overview describes her life and career.
A Letter from Perry Watkins on his Mistreatment in the Army
Perry Watkins was a gay African American soldier who was drafted to serve in the army during the Vietnam War. He was open about his sexuality throughout his entire career. Despite this, in 1981, the army revoked his security clearance after 13 years [...]
Perry Watkins Describes his Mistreatment by the Army
Perry Watkins was a gay African American soldier who was drafted to serve in the army during the Vietnam War. He was open about his sexuality throughout his entire career. Despite this, in 1981, the army revoked his security clearance after 13 years [...]
Construction of Freeway Displaces Black Detroiters (1959)
After World War II, local, state, and federal governments invested in building new highways, civic developments, housing, and other infrastructure. These urban renewal projects claimed to “revitalize” and “modernize” American cities by [...]